Smart learning environments and student engagement: A structural equation modeling study of psychological safety, learning motivation, and willingness to communicate

This study investigates the impact of classroom environment on students' psychological safety and learning motivation and further explores how psychological safety influences motivation and how motivation, in turn, affects students' willingness to communicate. These relationships are analyzed using a quantitative approach through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) implemented in R. While previous studies have often examined these variables in isolation, this study adopts an integrated approach to construct a comprehensive theoretical model, including classroom environment, psychological safety, learning motivation, and communication willingness. Moreover, it also considers how differences such as gender and urban–rural background may shape the ways in which the classroom environment affects students, offering insights into how these influences may vary across student groups. The findings are expected to offer both theoretical guidance and practical implications for improving classroom teaching approaches and stimulating greater student participation and learning achievements.