Sustainability Analysis of Critical Materials in Electric Vehicles with Emphasis on Circular Economy Principles

The electrification of the transportation sector is pivotal in reducing greenhouse gas emissions and decreasing dependence on fossil fuels. Central to this transition are battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and other clean energy technologies, which rely heavily on critical materials (CMs) such as cobalt, lithium, neodymium, and nickel. These materials are essential for the performance of batteries, advanced electronics, and other components in BEVs. However, the limited availability of these CMs poses potential constraints on the widespread adoption of such technologies. This research delves into the implications of widespread BEV adoption on the demand for CMs in the United States, with a focus on both light-duty vehicles (LDVs) and medium- and heavy-duty vehicles (MHDVs). Various market penetration scenarios were analyzed, revealing that while MHDVs require more CMs per vehicle, the sheer volume of LDV sales drives the overall CM demand, particularly in a scenario with 100% BEV adoption. Key findings highlight that cobalt, graphite, lithium, neodymium, and nickel are critical for BEVs, whereas palladium and rhodium are more crucial for internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs). Also explored is the impact of lightweighting on LDVs, revealing that while substituting steel with aluminum increases the total CM quantity per vehicle, it reduces the vehicle's mass, operational energy consumption, and the demand for high-concern battery-related CMs. Additionally, changing the battery cathode chemistry from NMC622 to LFP significantly reduces CM use but increases the demand for strategic materials like copper and phosphorus due to the lower energy density of LFP-based batteries. The research also highlights the importance of rare earth permanent magnets (REPMs), particularly Neodymium-Iron-Boron (NdFeB) magnets, in clean energy technologies such as electric vehicles and wind turbines. Neodymium, a critical material, faces supply chain risks. To lessen these risks, circular economy strategies have been proposed, ...